Social and cultural history: elites, the middle classes, and cultural change

Résumé du document

World War I has been seen as the revenge of the ‘Ancien Regime'. Arno Mayer argued there was a ‘persistence of the old regime' because pre-industrial elites in France, Germany, Russia and Britain successfully resisted change. The argument is a restatement of Wehler's Sonderweg thesis, extending it to France, Britain and Russia. Mayer argues that the First World War was the result of the ‘remobilization of Europe's anciens regimes. The pre-industrial economic interests were important. There is also the idea that the bourgeoisie failed to raise parliamentary democracy. The rise of German fascism is partly due to pre-industrials.

In France, after the Dreyfus affair, there was a new ralliement: the aristocracy decided to support the Republic and not the royalist system anymore. Poincare's election was considered as a revenge of the Ancien Regime. However, it was not the Old order. The Republic pushed back the influence of conservatism. The Dreyfus affair led to the consolidation of the Republic. The Chamber of deputies was dominated by legal bourgeois, not by the aristocracy (only 8% of deputies were landers). The working-class and the low middle-class were underrepresented. Nobility still existed in Franche-Comté and in the South of the Massif Central. Nevertheless, the power of nobility has gone in France. There was an over representation of the legal bourgeoisie (not the upper class) in terms of economic, political and social powers.

Extraits

[...] Social and cultural history: elites, the middle classes, and cultural change World War I has been seen as the revenge of the ‘Ancien Regime'. Arno Mayer argued there was a ‘persistence of the old regime' because pre-industrial elites in France, Germany, Russia and Britain successfully resisted change. The argument is a restatement of Wehler's Sonderweg thesis, extending it to France, Britain and Russia. Mayer argues that the First World War was the result of the ‘remobilization of Europe's anciens régimes. [...]

[...] The income tax only became necessary for the war in July 1914. The French education was not sufficiently open to middle classes (despite reform of the baccalaureat). A feudalization of the bourgeoisie has to be noted. Schneider (Le Creusot) used to live as the king (or at least as an aristocrat). In Germany and Austria, the number of aristocratic officers fell down. The system of pre-industrials was still ruling Europe in 1914. However, there was no difference in degree of bellicosity or conservatism between bourgeois and feudal elites. [...]

[...] Paradoxically, at the same time, there was a rise of popular Christianity. Young girls began to have vision of Mary (e.g. Lourdes), the number of pilgrimages increased (especially thanks to modern railways which facilitated transports of people). This period was also characterised by the emergence of new aesthetics. For instance, Thomas Mann wrote about the dangerous path followed by the German bourgeoisie. Marcel Proust played with images and memories. It was part of the modernist approach of literature (against rationalism). [...]

[...] In the late 19th century, the middle-class also comprised other sections such as the artisans and the shopkeepers. However, the question of the status of the artisans was raised: were they from the working class or the middle class? They generally depended on others, especially on capitalists. Indeed, in Paris in 1901, only craftsmen were independent. Their living conditions were quite poor: small workshop, little security, low incomes. Although some were close in wealth and status to the bourgeoisie, many were virtually proletarianised. [...]

[...] Especially, in Germany, the bourgeoisie came from two main groups. The first group called the Stadtbürger (city burghers) included merchants, businessmen and independent master craftsmen. The second group was epitomized the particular role of education in Germany: it was the Bildungsbürgertum (educated bourgeoisie) of civil servants, academic, lawyers and intellectuals. In Germany, the entrepreneurs often came from bankers families. At this time of Germans were from the middle-class and the aristocracy. In all these countries, there were similarities between the bourgeois: they were from religious minorities in the countries. [...]